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" "What one needs is a self-reproducing universal constructor... a machine capable of making any device... capable of making a copy of itself. Von Neumann has shown... that such... is theoretically possible, and... a human being is a universal constructor specialized to perform on the surface of the Earth.
(born February 1, 1947) is an American mathematical physicist and cosmologist, holding a joint appointment in the Departments of Mathematics and Physics at Tulane University. Tipler has written books and papers on the based on Pierre Teilhard de Chardin's religious ideas, which he claims is a mechanism for the resurrection of the dead. He is also known for his theories on the (Tipler time machine) and for the , an argument that no intelligent life exists outside of the Solar System. His work has attracted criticism, notably from systems theorist George F. R. Ellis who has argued that his theories are largely pseudoscience.
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The factors <math>f_lf_if_c</math> should not depend strongly on the evolution of the Galaxy... and so can be regarded as constants. Since the Galaxy is between 11 and 18 billion years old, the number N of stars older than 5.3 billion years is about twice the number of stars formed after the Sun, and thus approximately equal to the number of stars in the Galaxy, 10<sup>11</sup>. Thus <math>p \leqslant 10^{-11}</math>. If we accept the usual values of <math>f_p=0.1</math> to 1 and <math>n_e = 1</math> found in most discussions... then <math>f_lf_if_c \leqslant 10^{-10}</math>. The number of communicating civilizations now existing in our Galaxy is less than or equal to <math>p</math> x (number of stars in galaxy) = 1; that is to say, us.