We need to focus more on how information is managed in living systems and how this brings about higher level biological phenomena... more investigati… - Paul Nurse

DNA can act as a digital information storage device that can be precisely copied. Similarly, the mechanism of the lac operon... can be described in terms of molecular interactions between DNA, protein and s. But these interactions make sense only when they are translated into a negative loop...

We need to describe the molecular interactions and biochemical transformations that take place in living organisms, and then translate these descriptions into the logic circuits that reveal how information is managed. This analysis should not be confined to the flow of information from to , but should also be applied to all functions operating in cells and organisms, including chemical interactions and transformations as well as physical phenomena, such as electrical signalling and mechanical processes.

Ever since Sir Isaac Newton's times, scientists have worked in the same sort of way: