Among the less educated, few desired to further their education, preferring instead to work and save their money. As they saw it, you went to school to acquire skills that would increase your earnings, but you could achieve the same results by working hard and saving your money. Almost all the newer residents I interviewed lived in rented or subsidized accommodation and eschewed home ownership.

It was usual for a man to arrive first and to send for a spouse and children later after establishing himself, although there were also women who had arrived by themselves as autonomous migrants. The former occupations in Ghana of newer residents ranged from petty traders, artisans and schoolteachers to junior civil servants, although there were also a sprinkling of university graduates among them. However in general, newer residents were less educated than the older residents.

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They were also the people who were active in the various community organizations that they had helped set up. Newer residents consisted of men and women some of whom had previously lived in Nigeria, Gabon or another African country. They had arrived in Canada by way of Italy, Belgium or Holland, often with no valid documents (see also Konadu-Agyemang on “step-wise migration” in this issue).

More than sixty percent of the older residents I interviewed in Toronto were fairly settled in their jobs in plants, factories and the service sector. They owned their own homes, and all of them had acquired Canadian citizenship and called themselves Ghanaian-Canadians. While they still maintained links with relatives in Ghana and had gone back several times to visit, they seemed fairly settled into their lives in Canada and were at the stage in their lives when their children were beginning to enter college.

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Ghanaian women have served Ghana. They’ve served in our communities, our mothers. Because we don’t give them names; the home economist, and the human resource managers in our homes who are able to make magic with often very meagre resources.

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